The Making of a Sword

This may be a little too much information for some of you, but we feel it is important that you understand what it is you may be purchasing from us or other sword retailers. 99% of the products we sell are not real weapons or swords. If they are combat or battle ready we will mark the item in such a way for you to know. You might have come across some dealers or craftsmen that claim their swords are "the best made" or have the "highest quality". These claims do have some merit, but it doesn't hurt to explain what determines quality. We want people to be happy with the products we sell. We want to be upfront ad honest. Whether you buy from us or not this infromation should help to prevent you from getting ripped off. If you are looking for a real sword, meaning a real weapon, you are not going to find that here. You are not going to find a real sword for under $300.00. The swords we sell are mostly decorative and are for display only.

Metallurgy

Most swords that gleam or shine are made of stainless steel. Anything made of stainless steel is not a real sword but a decorative sword. Stainless Steel blades are molecularly brittle and cannot take nearly the same punishment as the swords of middle ages, regardless of the steel coming from Toledo Spain or any other region. The science of steel and it's properties is called metallurgy. Steels of different metallurgies have different properties, but they are all generally simple alloys or "low alloy" such as high carbon steel. Stainless steel for example. It's generally very high in chromium which acts as a grain enhancer but weakens the molecular bonds of a sword. On the other hand, a 5160 steel type like that used in truck springs proves itself as sword worthy metal. Other steels that are used for, say, a $1,000.00 higher end Japanese katanas might be forged from welded cable steel, or from the AISI 10xx series such as 1050, 1084, 1095, etc. which metallurgically have similar properties but with some differences. L6 is a steel that is reported to have incredible performanc properties. In the case of Japanese swords, the steel must be able to be clay tempered to create a real temper line (or "hamon") which is something high alloy steels cannot do. Some smiths have used O1, D2, or A2 for swords. Those steel grades are the same that can be found in some of your tools, and can serve as functional swords. But if you want the same beautiful aesthetics as a real Japanese sword temper line, you're out of luck unless the smith knows a special technique.

Quality of Steel

Many swords manufactured in third world countries such as India, Philippines, and Pakistan may use "spring steel". These are in fact recycled springs from tanks or trucks. The recycling of truck springs could present a problem. Often times, recycled spring steel is not processed properly; the process of treating the steel takes some skill, but third world countries have been known to cut corners. This results in the steel having memory. The steel may stress and want to revert back to its original grain direction. Also, the steel can suffer microcrystaline cracks, and, over a period of time, this can cause "cracking" along the grain boundaries as the sword is subjected to stress and shock. The result is that swords will break if they are not made correctly. Thus, be very careful when purchasing real battle ready swords. Observe the sales pitch. "Live steel" or "Spring Steel" or just "High Carbon Steel" can be either incomplete or misleading information. This is not to say that steel from recycled sources are bad. Some of the best Japanese style swords have been made from anything ranging from forge welded cables to anchor irons. It's how the steel is recycled and retreated for the sword.

Rockwell Hardness

Rockwell hardness testing is a general method for measuring the bulk hardness of metallic and polymer materials. Although hardness testing does not give a direct measurement of any performance properties, hardness correlates with strength, wear resistance, and other properties. Hardness testing is widely used for material evaluation due to its simplicity and low cost relative to direct measurement of many properties. Conversion charts from Rockwell hardness to tensile strength are available for some structural alloys, including steel and aluminum. Rockwell hardness testing is an indentation testing method. An indenter is impressed into the steel sample at a prescribed load to measure the material's resistance to deformation. A Rockwell hardness number is calculated from the depth of permanent deformation of the sample after application and removal of the test load. Various indenter shapes and sizes combined with a range of test loads form a matrix of Rockwell hardness scales that are applicable to a wide variety of materials.

Heat Treating

The goal of heat treating is to achieve a balance between toughness and hardness. Inversely proportional to one another, toughness has to do with impact absorption and shock tolerance, while hardness has to do with cutting and edge capabilities. Too soft, and your sword gets cut in two. Too hard and the sword is too brittle. Heat treating incorrectly can totally ruin a sword. Some businesses or websites boast about the quality of the steel but don't mention how or if the sword was heat treated. All of our Marto swords are heat treated. If there is no mention, and the sword retailer or reseller cannot comment on a heat treatment, and if the sword is under 300 US dollars, then chances are your sword may be a decorative wall hanger. In the case of Japanese swords, the edge is harder for cutting durability, while the back of the blade is softer to withstand the stresses of combat. The Samurai tried to kill with single blows and avoid blade-to-blade contact altogether! Some cracks are very obvious, and some are very fine. The fine ones can grow larger over time. Some Renaissance Fair sellers of the Japanese sword are nothing more than a bar of steel with a sharp point and edge. They do not have a hardened edge and softer spine like traditional Japanese swords do, which is a result of extra careful heat treating.

Weight and Balance

Some sword sellers and makers don't have any concept of how a sword should feel. The best thing to do when in search for real weapons is to look for or ask about blade design. A good sword maker will first determine with the customer what the intended use of the blade is and its intended target. These factors include a person's physical measurements. A sword made to cut armor will differ in design than a sword designed to just cut through flesh. Historically, the Japanese sword had differences in balancing thickness and blade width, and adding fullers (or grooves - not "blood grooves") to lighten the blades in some cases. A large blade does not need to be heavy, as a result of balancing all these factors. Thus the ability to craft a weapon that exceeds the parameters of its intended use is a tremendous acheivment. A heavy sword can undermine maneuverability, and in a life or death situation a well balanced and ligher sword that was made with the above mentioned qualities will be victorious. Swordmakers of the past constantly worked with fencing masters in a relationship which provided constant feedback of how a sword was made. Thus, a craftsman without this kind of support is hindered from producing a sword that can serve as a real weapon. Otherwise, you have a wall-hanger or decorative piece. Beware of swords that are over 3 lbs. Some decorative swords are 5 to 10 lbs. which is too heavy and in the olden days, a sword of that incredible weight would get you killed by someone else's sword! So ask yourself, does the sword feel like it is a part of you - an extension of yourself? Is its use awkward to your own natural body movements?

Design and Aesthetics

As for those who say "Who cares how it looks, so long as it's functional?" The sword of ancient times have their own artistic elegance which cannot be denied. Most of the swords used in battle were not ornate or detailed with gold, silver, or gems. The fact remains that there is a balance, again, between sword design and aesthetics, ranging from swept hilt rapiers to Scottish basket hilt broardswords. A fuller, for example, may in some swords be joined by one or more smaller fullers. The effect looks decorative, but the lighter sword suffers no compromises in strength. If you imagine the diamond-like cross section of a sword and picture a fuller on either side of the blade, a fuller basically creates two spines. The spines serve as a backbone to support a blade. The swordmakers of today who make ugly weapons perhaps can benefit from a study of historical weapons. Some western replicas of the Japanese katana are indeed ugly in appearance even though it may be a fuctional weapon. The handles are not of wood, as they were in tradition, but are basically a tang made thicker, and then wrapped in parachute chord with a traditional wrap, and sealed with epoxy. Then they boast about the functional aspects of the sword to detract you from looking at the poor aesthetics. You may hear the sales pitch indicating a four different Rockwell hardness reading, from a swords edge to it's two mid-points and finally the spine. But what is it made of? Stainless steel they say.. Move on if you are looking for a real sword for combat. The attention to detail of a traditional Japanese blade given by traditional sword polishers is an immense discipline of many years of study and should not be overlooked! Another thing to take into account is the hilt. The hilt comprises the guard, the handle, and the pommel. While the pommel is mostly seen as the counterweight to the blade, the hilt has to be seen as a whole. Many fantasy swords have the wildest hilts in the world, and yet the hilts are so heavy that the sword makes no sense as a weapon. So ask your self do you want a pretty sharp bar of steel, or do you want a real sword?

Caution on Marketing Language

Some dealers use all kinds of BS to sell you a sword. Some claim they use tool steel because it's used to cut through other steels. Sounds great when you're marketing swords. Others say, "we use spring steel or, the steel comes from Mercedes truck springs. If it's good for a two-ton truck, it's good for a sword." Technically this is true. But rather than get a brand new 5160, some third world countries actually get the steel from tank springs and try to forge swords out of them. Improper heat treatment results in the memory of the original shape being retained in the steel, which can further result in microcrystaline cracks and fractures. Finally, who could resist web pages full of cheesy metallurgical terms such as "secret steel" or "steel of the Knights Templar" or "our blades function as one crystal" and "edge packing of the edges" and the occurance of an "electromagnetic hum" that can be "felt". Twentieth century metallurgy is a science. There is no such thing as an indestructable sword or indestructable steel.

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Grades of Steel

Traditional/Original Japanese Steel - Always the best, this contains iron, carbon, silicon and many various trace elements. Approx. 0.6-0.7% carbon. One modern smelter in Japan that was used during World War II provides steel of the following composition: 0.04% molybdenum, 0.05% tungsten, 0.02% titanium, 1.54% copper, 0.11% manganese, and a few other traces, a varying amount of silicon (due to the sand - amount depends on sand/ore ratio in a particular load), between 0.1% and 3% carbon and the balance being iron. The presence of silicon increases structural strength as well as improving flexibility characteristics.

AISI/American 1050/10xx - A good choice! While not identical to medieval Japanese steel, this plain carbon steel is the closest we have today. AISI 10xx steel contains iron, manganese and carbon, differing slightly from traditional steel. AISI 1065 maybe closer in carbon content to Traditional than 1050, but 1050 is tougher steel, and compensates somewhat for the lack of silicon in the steel (silicon improves strength and flexibilty). The xx in 10xx indicates the percentage of carbon, where 1050 has .50% carbon, and 1070 has .70% carbon, etc. The higher the carbon content, the harder the steel. The lower the carbon content, the more tough the steel is. Too hard, and the blade can shatter upon impact. Too soft, and it can easily be cut through. Many ask, "Which is the best for swords?" However, it's all in the heat-treating. But generally, you want a low-alloy steel for your sword. The biggest difference between 10xx and traditional Japanese steel tamahagane is the presence of manganese in 10xx but also the lack of silicon.

AISI/American 5160 - a low Chromium (0.7%) alloy tool steel, it also contains 0.2% silicon, and is considered widely to be a superior steel for swords in general, particularly European style swords, because it is so tough. Although this steel contains chromium, there is not enough to make it stainless (More than 13% is required to make steel "stainless". 440C contains 16-18% chromium) or to effect the strength of the steel. This steel has a slightly richer alloy mix than the AISI 10xx series. Some Malaysian manufacturers use this steel, but do a poor job with heat-treatment so the resulting blade is inferior. However, this inferiority is the fault of the sword-maker and not the steel itself! The steel's chromium content is enough to make it extremely difficult to create a hamon (temper line). Also, 5160 is a bit more corrosion resistant than 10xx when it comes to fingerprint oils' acidity. You could touch it without fear of instant rusting, but clean your sword still before resheathing it.

A2 Tool Steel - The "A" of "A2" means "Air Hardening" which means it can be cooled with an air blast ("slow cooling") rather than being quenched in water or oil ("fast cooling") A2 is a chromium tool steel, rated for high toughness and in a knife, very good edge holding potential. The chromium content is not enough to make the steel "stainless" or to weaken the grain boundaries significantly (like 420 and 440 Stainless). Despite its excellent properties, for use in a Japanese style blade, it cannot be clay treated (for differential hardening) in the traditional manner - which gives the katana its superiority, as traditional blades are fast cooled instead, and clay does not work to prevent hardening of the blade's back in cooling A2. Because of this, you generally cannot create a hamon (temper line) with A2. Only one craftsman in the world was able to create a temper on this steel with a "secret" process. In short, the marketing pitch on A2 swords is that "it's a tool steel that cuts through other steels, so it's good for a sword."

D2 Tool Steel - This is a good chrome-vanadium tool steel; it has 12.5% chromium which is not enough to make it stainless, but which in other steels, would be enough to rule it out as a sword steel. However, D2 also has vanadium and tungsten which act as grain refiners and counteract some of the weakening effects of the chrome. Because of the addition of molybdenum and some nickel, it is very tough, very hard (from the tungsten) and holds a good edge (only stellite and maybe 440V come close in terms of edge holding, but 440V is much more brittle, and stellite is a cobalt alloy, not a steel). Unfortunately, like A2 and other high alloy, deep hardening steels, you cannot create a hamon on it. A sword of this material would be incredibly tough. And despite its edge holding characteristics on paper, it is said that it holds a lousy edge and will hold it forever. Like A2, it's an air-hardening steel and is hard to heat treat properly. If you manage, then that's great. L6 may be a better choice for high performance steel (it's not too hamon-friendly either). It is said that D2 may be a little better than high carbon stainless steels.

S-5 Steel - The "S" stands for "shock-resistant" which comes about as a result of its 2% silicon content. This might be better than 1050, but it is more difficult to find, and will most certainly be more expensive than plain carbon steels.

S-7 Steel - Another shock-resistant tool steel, is air hardening, which means that unless the smith really knows what he's doing, this steel is hard to heat treat. Some may use a torch to treat the edge to give it a Japanese style temper line - such a maneuver might be okay with knives, but in swords there is almost always a total loss of control of quality. The marketing hype is "Shock resistance". So everyone thinks this steel can cut through other steels. Take into account the totality of the sword smithing process! Inferior heat treating can result in a poor steel. S-7 is getting very alloy-rich for use as a high-performance sword. S-5 might be a better way to go, but it's pricey.

CK55 Krupp Steel - You've seen it advertized in some of Museum Replica's catalogs - which earlier Del Tin swords and blades were forged from. It's the European equivalent of AISI 1055. "C" stands for "Carbon" and "K" for Krupp - the German company that makes it.

50CRV4 - This is a steel with very small amounts of Vandium and Chromium. Chromium in higher quantities lends to a steel's "stainless" properties. However, in 50CRV, there isn't enough to make it "stainless" - and metallurgically brittle. Thus it makes a good spring steel. It contains trace amounts of Silicon and Manganese. The tensile strength is equaled to CK55 and CK50 is about 600 N/mm2, while 50CRV4 ranks about 750 N/mm2.

420, 440A, 440B, 440C, 440V, ATS-34 - Stainless steel. Great for kitchen knives, folding knives, etc. Sword-makers such as Gladius and Marto/Martespa of Spain use it a lot. However, they are unsuitable for swords and swordplay re-enactment, namely because of the weak grain boundaries caused by the presence of the chromium, which is used as a grain enhancer and gives it it's "stainless" properties and mirror finish when polished, but makes it more brittle. Chromium and other alloying elements like Vanadium, tungsten, etc. can make steels stainless, fine grained, heat resistant, etc but really add to the problem because you cannot create a beautiful hamon ("cloud pattern") line with these steels. The ones that appear on replicas are ugly acid or electro-etched sine waves! NOTE: Some rip-off companies only put "440 STAINLESS STEEL" on their products, but neglect to say whether it's 440A, B, or C. Since 440C is the most qualitative of the lot, they just say "440" and lean on the popularity of 440C, which is dishonest.

CPM420V Stainless Steel - Made by the Crucible Materials Corporation as an upgrade for CPM440V, this high alloy (20 percent) stainless steel was developed originally as a high-wear steel for wear and corrosion resistance (on par with most other popular stainless knife steels). For a knife blade, this steel has good things going for it. It has good edge holding capabilities (you can make a very aggressive edge on blades made of CPM440V), you'll find some ductility and pliability with this steel. On the downside, it's difficult to get a decent finish on it due to its high alloy content. It's an excellent steel but not a workhorse like D2, 51200 (used for ball bearings), 440C, and 154CM/ATS34 (a modification of 440C). However, knifemakers find CPM440V blades out cut all other steels hands down.

420J2 Stainless Steel - Again, just because it's "100% pure Stainless Steel" doesn't mean it's all that great. 420 Stainless Steel could normally produce a fair wallhanger sword. However, 420J2 has very little carbon content, so the Rockwell hardness won't be higher than 53 Rockwells. Even though many Marto and Martespa products fall into this range - and the spines (not edges) of Japanese swords are in this range - the unfortunate fact that 420J2 swords are so quickly churned out by these rip-off third world overseas companies that they've been independently rated at a mere 45 Rockwells! That means our Marto wallhangers could cut through it! So why do these companies use 420J2 for their swords? First off, it's extremely easy to grind. But because they can grind ten swords in the same time it takes to make one Marto, the fact is that their greed for money exceeds the importance of even making a quality decorative sword. Think of 420J2 as the stainless equivalent of mild steel - with very low carbon content and thus will not harden.

High Carbon Steel / High Carbon Spring Steel - Sellers may use words like "Spring Steel" or "Live Steel" in a pitch. Spring Steel is a term that refers to any member of a group of steels that various types of car and truck springs are usually made of. Car springs are commonly made of 5160, but they can also be 1065. "Live Steel" is another term for plain carbon steel. It can be referred to 1050, 1065, 5160, CK55 or any plain carbon or low alloy steel. Because these are not stainless, swords made of these materials do require oiling to prevent rusting. You may want to keep Iberia swords outside of their scabbards to avoid moisture damage and corrosion from chemicals used to treat the leather. Their high carbon spring steel is from the Philippines and comes from automobile springs (typically 5160), and can flex somewhat and retain memory. The high carbon steel used in Indian swords is similar to 1065. But, watch out! Even though many Indian, Filipino and Malaysian companies use superior steel, they put it through very poor heat-treating, which results in an inferior blade! In terms of "bang for the buck" you're getting an okay sword, but I wouldn't bet my life on an Indian, Filipino or Malaysian blade due to low-quality tempering.

Damascus Steel - The original Damascus was a crucible steel with an extremely high carbon content. When forged into a blade, the carbides in the steel formed into a pattern that was visible on the surface of the steel. This material is also called "Wootz" or "Bulat". What most people think of today when they hear the word "Damascus" is actually pattern-welded damascus. Now this steel is composed of many layers of high and low carbon steel, and when etched, the high and low carbon steels are attacked at different rates by the acid, resulting in a visible pattern. Pattern-welded steels have existed since man began working with iron and steel (the Vikings made many pattern welded blades, however the technique fell into disuse until after the Crusades, when the smiths attempted to re-create the appearance of Wootz blades brought back by the knights by pattern welding steels).

Now, regarding modern (or pattern-welded) damascus in a Japanese-style sword, Atlanta Cutlery probably inspired this ever since they began selling a full tang samurai damascus blade, at the request of many customers. However, this blade was produced by Windlass Steelcraft and was done improperly! It suffers from a condition known as "carbon migration" which means that all the carbon from the high carbon layers has gone into the low carbon layers, and the overall carbon content is now too low and the blade is unhardenable. It is very soft and weak and will not stand a chance against a well-constructed blade.

This article above can be forund at http://www.swords-and-medieval-collectibles.com/swordinfo.html

 Forging swords

I demonstrated first, showing how to shape the point and begin the bevels. My technique involves working with a heavy hammer, minimum four pounds and preferably larger, and constraining motions by locking the hammer arm to the side and striking with the forearm and not wrist. Also the arm holding the work is locked into the side also and the piece is moved by rotating the hips. The hammer face should strike in the same spot and the work moved. Attention has to be paid to the height of the work piece so that it is flat on the anvil and the handle is not tipped up or down creating a bend in the blade which will later have to be straightened. In the manner of the Japanese, I like to wet forge. Wet forging is simply keeping the anvil face and hammer covered with water while forging. The water does not cool the blade but helps to blow off the scale and keep it from being beaten into the hot metal. Scale is uncompressible compared to hot metal and will leave craters in the finished work that can be a problem. I also like to keep the scaling down by working in a rich fire and at lower heats.

Forging steel is the beginning of the heat treating process and as much care should be given to the temperature of the steel as is given the actual forging. I like to progressively reduce my forging temperatures until in the finish forging I am working just above and below critical. I feel this goes a long way to refining the grain of the steel. Care must be taken not to drop too cold or stresses can be built into the steel and so you should cycle right around critical.

I like to work in small sections, beginning at the point and then forging the bevels by laying the unforged steel on the anvil and forging into the already forged section. If you try to forge from the already beveled area to the unforged area, the thicker unforged section will curve the blade every time and create problems. It is helpful to straighten and true the blade before it returns to the fire so that you don't end up chasing your lines and can start from a good straight line.

A common mistake is to fail to set the angle on the bevel by raising the bar up from the anvil. You have to set the angle otherwise the bevel will be establish on the hammered side and remain flat on the reverse. I found it helpful to work to your weak side first, setting the bevel and then switching sides. I need to make a sketch of this, but will have to add it later.

The forging proceeds down the blade in three or four inch segments, taking care to watch the lines and true everything up as you go. I do not attempt to forge to the final edge at this time, but rather want to establish the bevels and profile for the blade. It is important to forge equally on both sides. If you fail to do it, the blade will begin to twist because you are drawing more on one side than the other. Also, by forging equally on both sides balance the stresses on the blade.

Another common problem encountered is keeping the blade from curving radically. The old adage about never beating on the edge is foolishness. You can beat on the edge without creating problems, but obviously you have to correct for any upsetting. I use the length of the anvil to take the curve out of the blade laying the section that is curving on the anvil and lightly tapping it back straight. When the edge is thinner, I use a wooden or rawhide mallet and a wooden block so I won't mar the blade or edge.

When you approach the tang end of the blade it is time to reverse your grip, you will know when it is time because it is too hot to handle comfortably. It is difficult to continue the bevel line from the forged section without running into the problem of the thicker section curving the thinner beveled area, at least for me, so I begin at the far end by forging the tang. On the katanas the bevel is just and extension of the blade bevel. The only consideration with the tang area is that it be tapered in all directions to the area where the fittings will seat to the blade. I don't go to great pains to set the notches just rough them in, but I do spend a considerable amount of time shaping the tang. The tang takes a lot of stress since it is fulcrum point for the blade and it is wise to make it as strong as possible and forging to shape is the best start.

Working back from the tang, forge into the blade and join the previously forged area. I like to let the blade cool at this point so I can handle it comfortably and look at it from all angles. It is amazing how different steel looks when it is cold from when it is hot. This will give you the opportunity to see where you need to work and to plan you finish forging.

When I begin to final forge the blade, I use the same hammer, but use lighter blows. I am looking to bring the metal down to the edge, straighten all the lines, crisp up the bevel lines and remove any hammer blemishes from the rough forging. It is slow and careful work, but will greatly shorten the finishing time when the blade is cold. The final shape of the blade is straight. The curve will be established during the hardening process.

As a final step to the forging process, I cycle the whole blade from critical temperature to below 1000F for at least three times in the air. This thermal cycling will reduce the stresses in the blade and help to further refine the grain structure before hardening. I do not anneal my steels and if they need to be further softened I will heat the blade to 1300F and hold for a long soak.

Hand work

Since there were no real grinders at the Folk School, I decided that we would make these blades by hand. This was quite a shock to the full time makers who were attached to their belt sanders and to the new comers who hadn't done much hand work before, but it was also a good learning experience and I felt essential to really understanding the swords. Too often we rush out to buy power equipment to do a job missing some of the basics of the craft in the process. I began making Damascus by hand with a hand hammer and continued for several years until I could no longer keep up with the work. This gave me a feel for the steel and the process and also made me appreciate the final product. Damascus has never been bar stock for me, it remains special and it feels it is because of this early start.

Making and using a sen or scraper

I had requested that the students bring files, stones and paper to the classes, but we took Tuesday morning to forge out some Japanese style scrapers called sens to use for the stock removal. The sen is very similar to a draw knife used for wood. The blade has two handles or tangs extending from a flat center cutting area. The best cutting tools are flat ground on one face and have two cutting edges front and back. The bevel is quite acute to the edge, but is concave for strength. They are meant to be used sharp and work with either a push or pull stroke. We made ours up out of leaf spring and oil hardened them, drawing for 1/2 hr at 325F to take the curse off the hardening. Most of the ones we made worked quite well, some better than others, but I think that all who gave them a fair try, found it to be a much fast way of getting the stock off and the flats set than by filing.

Before using the sen or files, we knocked off the scale with rough stones. I had found some cheap oil stones at a flea market and they worked fine. Knocking the scale off revealed the hammer imperfections and bevel lines. Once most of the scale was removed, we turned to the scrapers. It is a bit difficult to get them started since they need to establish their own bite before they really start cutting the metal. I have pulled a shaving off a katana three inches long with my sen and end up with a pile on the floor when I am finished shaping the blade. I brought my sen to class and it had sharpened two katanas and a tanto before requiring anything more than a light touch up.

Final shaping of a sword with hand tools is hardwork. I have to work through my impatience and settle into the rhythm of the tools before I can appreciate the process. It is very peaceful and satisfying not to have a motor running every time you work. I find going back to power tools stressful after a time of working only with hand tools. Because the pace is slower, you also get a chance to thinking about what you are making, anticipating problems and developing a connection with the piece instead of simply producing it.

Often new knife makers jump into the craft without ever having made a knife from scratch. I think this is skipping an important learning phase and doesn't teach respect for what they are doing. The connection with the past and with a time not so caught up in the frenetic pace of today's life that was appealing to me when I first started forging and I am glad that I was able to experience and appreciate it.

Files

The scraper sets the lines of the blade and prepares us for the files. Going to the files we begin to refine the blade. At first the file takes the tops off the scraper cuts, but soon it is into the meat of the steel. I like to use a draw filing motion that is not in the books. I hold the file in both hands and push/pull it at right angles to the work. While this may seem contrary to the way a file was designed to cut, it produces a smooth flat finish and rarely gauls. I also use light strokes and do not bear down as hard as I did with the scraper. I begin with a bastard mill file, though if a lot of material needs to be removed I sometimes use a magic cut file. After the bastard mill file you can go to a smooth file and this will save you time when you transition to stones.

After, the lines have been set and are crisp, I begin to work the flat of the bevel to the edge. It is helpful to sight along the edge and finds the center line. Cutting a minibevel to establish the center line will give you a guide when you begin cutting to it along the flat of the blade. This is a common practice when grinding a blade and it works well with hand tools too.

I should mention at this time about how to secure the blade while working on it. In my shop, I have made a sturdy and functional tool for holding long blades. It is made from a drill press vise to which I have welded a 1" angle iron roughly 24 inches long. The vise is located in approximately 6" from one end and the angle is welded using nickel rod for the cast iron and welded to the inside base and fixed jaw. I pad the surface of the angle with thin leather and pad the top, moveable vise jaw with neoprene. When I am working, I clamp this tool in my bench vise. Using a vise in a vise is very versatile, sort of vise versa. Sorry. Anyway, you can then clamp the blade securely while you are working on it. A bit about vise safety. A blade clamped in the vise should have the edge and point behind the back up support. It is very dangerous and can hurt you badly. Whenever I leave the work piece, I remove the blade from the vise, every time. For the class at JC Campbell, we used 2x4's held in the post vise clamping the blades down with c clamps.

Heat treating the swords

In the class, we hardened the blades in the as filed condition. You can take them through the first stone, but any further will just create work for yourself. The secret of the Japanese katana is its ability to hold together even if the blade chipped or damaged. This is accomplished by a process of selectively hardening the blade through the application of clay along the area that is to be left unhardened. The Japanese smiths were very creative when it came to building strong, unbreakable blades. By carefully combining steels of varying carbon contents, sometimes using five or more different steels in the construction of their blades, they were able to adjust each portion of the blade for the maximum service. Since we were working with a piece of homogeneous steel, we attempted to achieve similar results though careful heat treating.

Clay coating

I won't pretend to know all the secrets of the clay formula, but I have found that any refractory that will stick to the blade and still be easily removed after hardening will yield satisfactory results. I prefer to a high temp mortar mix from A.P. Green Industries called Satanite. It comes dry and may be mixed with water to provide a tenacious clay with excellent insulating characteristics. I also use #36 premixed mortar cement from A.P. Green. #36 is an air setting mortar and has higher shrinkage than the Satanite, but is popular with many makers. I heard about it from Michael Bell and again from Bob Engnath. For the class, I brought a tub of the #36.

The clay works by providing a barrier to the quench, effectively slowing down the cooling rate so that the steel does not completely transform to martensite during the quench. Most modern eutectoid steels have a long TTT transformation time and the clay is not as effective as it is with the medium carbon steels. 1050 is particularly sensitive to the clay since it has to get below the nose of the curve in under a second to fully harden. By running a bunch of tests, we were able to determine that a thin layer of clay, around 1/8th inch, would stop complete hardening of the blade, create an interesting temper line and leave the back tough and relatively springy. All blades hardened in this manner will take a set if bent too far, but it is very important not to make the backs too soft or they will bend with nearly every cut. I have seen old blades that were easily bent in the hands and I do not find this acceptable. If it is too hard it will not stop the propagation of a crack so there is a balance that has to be struck. Obviously the Japanese smiths confronted the same problem hence the complex billet constructions.

A light, thin wash is applied over the entire surface of the blade. This is done with a brush which has had the excess water flung out and then is dipped into a thin clay mix. After this has dried enough not to be runny, a thicker layer of clay is applied to the back of the blade using a spatula. We used a broken band saw blade, but an old table knife will work as well. A layer about 1/8th is applied uniformly down to within about one third of the distance from the cutting edge. You can be as creative as you like with the application of the line remembering that if it is too busy, you may lose definition to the hamon. Since I wanted to stiffen the back of the 1050 all clay was scraped from the spine of the blade. This allows it to harden helping to control the curve and make it more flexible without being soft. On a tip from Bob Engnath, I wrap construction wire in a spiral down the blade and then go back and cover the wire with the clay that surrounds it. This wire is not necessary with Satanite, but helps the #36 stay in place when it is heated. The clay is then left to dry a bit before putting it into the heat treating forge.

Hardening the blade

You need a fast quench to harden this steel and water is the best choice. I was using brine, but Yoshindo says in his book that the clay has the same wetting effect as the salt and yields good results. It is best to use distilled or rain water for the quench, but lacking a rain barrel, we used water from the tap. My quench tank is made from plywood that was caulked and sealed with polyurethane. It works fine though it did leak because it had dried out during the trip. You should build the tank long enough to get the entire blade and tongs into it without a problem. My quench trough is 4'x1'x1' or maybe a little bigger. It is wise to dry run the quench before you apply the clay so you know what the movement will be and to see if everything will fit.

Heat treating furnace

I built a gas fired, digitally controlled furnace to harden the swords. The design came from a conversation with Howard Clark and were modified to suit my needs. The controller is a small 1/16 DIN Microprocessor-Based Auto-tuning Control series 965 from Watlow. Omega offers similar controllers and they run around $200. These controllers allow you to establish a set point temperature and sends a signal to a gas solenoid valve turning the gas on and off as it approaches set point. The solenoid valve I use came from White-Rodgers and is in normal close position until activated by the controller. The solenoid I use is a low pressure valve and runs off a 1/2 lb regulator. The plumbing on the value is straight forward. I use a K type thermocouple to provide input to the controller. For this system I decided that I would install a sparkplug ignition and placed sparkplugs at the two burner ports. They are constantly fired by a standard furnace transformer.

For the forge, I used a 12" diameter pipe 36" long for the forge, cutting in two burner ports approximately 8" from either end. I also cut a vent in the center and welded a chimney over it. The vent helps control the atmosphere and also draws the heat to the center of the forge to equalize the heating. I lined the inside with 2400 degree 1" blanket of Inswool from A.P. Greene and coated it with a layer of high temp mortar mix. I also made a bed of soft firebrick along the bottom and cut grooves in the block to support the blades. The block also serves to break up the flame from the burners and stops it from making direct contact with the blades.

The burner is begins with a 100 cfm shaded pole blower connected to a 6" length of 1 1/4" diameter iron pipe. In the center of the pipe, drill and tap for a fitting to connect the gas line. I do not use an orifice, just straight in. The pipe leads to a T and then 6" straight pipe, elbows, 4" straight pipe to a bell reducing fitting 1 1/4" to 1". I welded on pipe to the outside of the burner posts to support the burner heads and lock the burners in place with a set screw. The burner and the transformer are connected to an outlet strip which is then plugged into a surge suppressing outlet strip which powers the controller. I mounted the controller and another digital pyrometer inside a utility box.

This whole furnace can be built from off the shelf parts for under $350 and the controller also is used to run a smaller high temp salt pot that I use for my smaller blades. With the controller and the spark plug ignition, I am able to control the temperature accurately from 200F to 1900F holding a 20 degree margin.

Hardening the swords

After the clay had set up enough so that it would not run or slide on the blade, it is put into the furnace. The furnace was set at 1600F and was up to temp before we put the blades in. The blades were put edge down in the grooves on the brick. When the forge is running it sounds like it is breathing. The flame cuts on and off as it maintains temp. Adding the spark plug ignition is really nice because all you have to do is push a button and it comes on. At heat treating temperatures the flame would ignite by the interior heat of the forge, but as a safety factor it is nice to know the spark plugs are firing.

To hold onto the blades, we needed a specially designed pair of tongs, ones with an offset so that the blade could be thrust into the quench tank and the tongs not get in the way. Chuck forged out a pair in about half an hour that worked great. Besides the offset to the jaws there is a lip that comes back at a right angle to pick up the bottom of the tang on the sword.

The blade slowly comes up to temp. When the back is at critical, we raised the blade out of the groove and let it come to the same color as the back. When I first went to the controller, I made the newbie mistake of relying on the controller to tell me when the blade was up to heat. What the controller is telling you is the temperature of the thermocouple and you have to calibrate your eye to that color and match it to the blade to be sure that you are at temp. This allows for heat treating in varying light conditions and is quite accurate when you get use to it. The eye is still the best judge of temperature because you can see if there are hot or cold spots and will notice subtle changes over the blade.

When the whole blade is at the proper hardening temperature, we were shooting for 1550F it is rapidly removed and quenched in the trough of water. It is held beneath the water and moved gently back and forth until all visible color has gone from the back of the blade, then it is taken out. If there is still color when taken out, it goes back into the quench again for a few seconds and then removed. Working quickly, you take all the clay off the blade and then check the edge with a file. If it has hardened it is then transferred to the low temp salt bath for tempering.

Tempering

We do not really want to soften the steel at this point, but do need to relief the stresses created by the hardening, so we set up a salt bath at 325F and drew the blades from 1/2 to 1 hour. This seems to give the best hardness and toughness for this steel. Each steel will have to be treated differently. After the blades were done tempering we checked them again with the file and if they needed straightening we did that over the hardy hole on the anvil using a hammer. The back is soft on this style of blade and they adjust easily. I like to sharpen the swords at this point and go cut something. My standard tests involve cutting 2x4 pine or fir. I like ones with knots because it is hard on the edge and will tell you quickly whether you have the edge geometry and heat treatment right. If I happy with the performance of the blade it is real and I can proceed with the finishing. If I am not happy with it, it can be restraightened and rehardened. We had to do many of the blades over during the Folk school class and didn't lose any.

Finishing

Stones

After the blades were hardened, we began to polish with stones. For this I recommended using red brick EDM polishing stones in 120,220,320,600 grits. I buy my stones from Manhattan Supply Company. These stones are designed for tool and die makers to clean up molds and dies. They are a synthetic stone and quite soft, but they cut well and are very useful for cleaning up and polishing blades. I use then on all my blades and find they are especially useful for cleaning up the transition radius between the flats and ricasso on western style knife grinds. With price of sheet abrasive going through the roof, stones are a fine alternative. The stones wear more evenly and cut best when used with a light touch. I add a synthetic grinding fluid to the water to keep them from loading. I first heard about these stones from Steve Hoel, a superb folder maker. Steve stones and hand finishes all his blades and achieves amazing tolerances in his folders. Our objective with the stones is to polish out the file scratches, moving from the coarser grits to the final polish.

When polishing with either stones or paper, it is best to work at a 45 degree angle to the blade and reverse the direction with each change of grit. By polishing at different angles you can see the previous scratches and insure that all of them are removed before moving on. I also like to reverse the direction of sanding from the bevel and the back so I can clearly see my lines. It is sometimes hard to see all the scratches and I recommend working in a good light. I have a combination of natural light coming from a window by my bench, indirect light provided by florescent lights and a direct light source that can be move to different angles so that you can see the blade in all aspects. It is amazing how those scratches can hide in the light and one thing you can be sure of is that they will never go away if you miss them.

After I have set down a good 320 grit polish with the stones, I will switch to Japanese style water stones. I am not a sword polisher and can not justify the expensive natural stones a professional polisher uses, but is quite satisfied with the synthetic stones now commonly found in woodworkers supply catalogs. They also come in a variety of grits, but I use only the 400 and 800 grit. These stones need to be soaked in water before they are ready to use. I prefer to use distilled water and recommend adding a bit of baking soda to the water to help prevent rusting. I also have found it helpful to buy some plastic trays and keep each stone in its own tray. This helps prevent contamination by grits from the coarser stones.

The water stones are usually quite large 3x6x1 inches and I have found that they are more easily handled and that I can get more life from them if I cut them to smaller sizes using a masonry blade in my saw. The water stones cut very differently than the EDM stones. You will notice the hardened and unhardened portions of the blade pop out when you begin using these stones. Still alternating the direction of the strokes for each grit, I get a good 800 grit polish over the entire surface of the blade. These stones wear quickly and care must be taken to keep them flat so that they won't wash out the bevel lines. Also, the motion with these stones is to the edge, rounding in to sharpen as you polish. Be very careful not to slip or you will christen the blade with blood.

Wet or dry paper

After the final water stone is finished, I switch to 600 grit wet or dry paper, wet and sand length wise on the blade. I cut the sheets into inch or so wide strips and pinch them over a sanding block of hard flat material. I like corian blocks because they are not bothered by the water and are flat and thick enough to get your fingers on. I make my sanding blocks 1 inch wide and around four inches long. The paper is used wet with considerable force and the paper is rotated frequently as it begins to lose its cutting action. During this process the edge will begin to polish brighter than the softer back and you should continue to polish until all the scratches have been removed and the back is beginning to shine. While this process may seem to take forever the first time you attempt it, it gets much faster with practice.

At this point a light etch will really help pop out the temper line. I use a very dilute wash of ferric chloride, Archer etchant from Radio Shack, cut 2 to 1 with distilled water. I soak a portion of paper towel and rub it briskly over the entire blade. I am not trying to etch the blade as much as bring out the temper line. You have to acquire a touch with the ferric so that you don't darken some areas more than others, but it doesn't take long to figure out and can really make the temper line jump. When you are satisfied with the etch, rinse the blade and neutralize the ferric with a spray of ammonia. You can tell the ammonia is working by the blue green colors it turns up. Rinse again and dry the blade thoroughly.

The next step is 1500 grit wet or dry paper. I get these papers from my local auto parts store, but they are readily available. Again using this paper wet, go lenght wise over the entire blade paying more attention the area above the temper line than below. This will bring the back of the blade into high polish. If you wipe out the temper line redo with the ferric and repolish.

Paste polish

The final step is to go over the back of the blade with a fine paste polish. Some folks use rubbing compound on a cloth, but I like to use Simichrome a chrome polish found in most motorcycle shops or through mail order knife supply catalogs. Continue with the paste until the back of the blade is dark and all the 1500 grit scratches are wiped out. You can go over the hardened portion, but only lightly to remove the oxides from the etch. A popular finish on the Japanese blades shows a frosted edge, bright hamon and darkly polished back. You can approach this look with careful use of the paste polishes. Another polish used to darken the back of the blade can be made by using red rough buffing compound and light oil.

Inspection

Now is the time to look over your work. Carefully inspect the blade for areas that need work. It is helpful to look at the blade in full light and also indirect light, tipping the blade so that the hamon is clearly visible and so that you can inspect the surface from every angle. If you find an area that needs work go back to it until it is right.

This blade finish is quite attractive, easy to maintain and a lot less expensive than a traditional polish. While nothing can duplicate the incredible view into the metal that a well done traditional polish reveals, this method is attainable by anyone with simple tools and the willingness to work.

This sword article above can be found at  http://www.dfoggknives.com/copy_of_index/sword.htm